German Peasants’ War [1524-25]: know thy place!
- Major lower class insurrection in SW and S “Germany”, claiming over 100k killed?!
- Joined by some sympathetic radical Reformatory clerics, seeing the rebels “doing God’s work”.
- Main motive protesting their economic lot, but political complaint too, summarised specifically in the pioneering 12 Articles.
SUMMARY
The German Peasants’ War was the largest insurrection in European history before the French Revolution. It began in the Black Forest / Swabia in late summer and fall of 1524, spread east as far as the Tyrol [1526] and Salzburg] and NE to Franconia and Thuringia, peaked around Easter of 1525, was brutally quashed by ruling Princes, taking over 100k lives among the rebels.
By the late 15th C in “Germany” a symbiotic overlap of politics and religion had emerged in common / joint opposition to the Church in Rome, to its long sacralistic intervention in their local affairs.
German clerics led by M Luther objected to intrusive rule / venal behaviour of the Roman Church, sought reform [eg when ML posted complaints in 95 Theses at Wittenberg, 1517], alongside secular German nationalistic political complaint among the German Princes against the Church, favoring independence from Rome, especially not paying them taxes: “German money for a German church.“.
This common cause triggered the pivotal Reformation, joined soon after by nearby England under monarch Henry VIII, where also arose secular and clerical opposition to Rome.
Criticism, resentment of, disenchantment with, the Church had earlier gathered pace in Europe after the massive Continent-wide societal shock of the Black Death in 1348, joined in England by John Wycliff [late 14th C] who then influenced Jan Hus in Prague, in turn sparking violent widely destructive revolt by the Hussites in Bohemia, c1420-1431.
The short but lethal German Peasants War was mainly caused by underling economic suffering long simmering in the 15th C among many peasants across southern “Germany”, but it spilled also into political complaint.
Before the 1524 irruption this grievance had already become violent a number of times in the mid and late 15th C.
The background to peasant unrest was complex.
The peasant class had benefited from the Black Death, the scarcity of labor lifting real wages later in 14th C into the 15th. But at the behest of the noble and knight classes Roman civil law [displacing common law] then ate into these better circumstances, especially by confiscating / enclosing common lands near villages, forcing some peasants into at least quasi-serfdom.
Revolt broke out in – was largely confined to – the south because a/ it had a stronger tradition of village self-government, of communal sense of rights, and b/ the knight class was relatively stronger south and itself under pressure from Princes so it was mainly knights leaning on the peasants.
The rebellion was led mainly by better off aspirational peasants. This and and stronger communalism south reflected in the Twelve Articles at the Free Imperial City of Memmingen March 1525, which proved a landmark document in the ancestry of modern liberal democracy in specifying rights of the populace: 1/ freedom for serfs; 2/ access to forests / lakes for food and wood; 3/ no laboring obligations not agreed to; 4/ fair rent for land; 5/ rule of law: laws agreed not arbitrary.
The peasants willingness to finally vent their frustration in emphatic armed revolt in 1524 undoubtedly had one eye on the then recent [1522-23] Knights Revolt in the nearby Rhineland [eg briefly besieging Trier] and, secondly, they were also by then well aware of the reformist hostility to Rome by clerics like Luther.
Strangely too then was how some of the clerical Radical reformers saw specific common cause with the lot of the peasants and actively joined their violent uprising, notably Thomas Muntzer [c1489-1525] who with an apocalyptic millenarian / end of world mindset saw the rebels doing God’s work [“as the instruments of God.”] and their high born opponents in the employ of Satan.
Luther – “born a peasant”, ear to the ground – became involved, in Dec. 1521 warning of possible peasant unrest. Then after being personally threatened by the violence he famously about turned and loudly castigated the rebels, canvassed harsh measures.
The arrival [c1470s] and spread of printing fanned reformist agitation, including specific demands of the rebelling peasants [cf 12 Articles].
BACKGROUND: context / causes / agents
1/ Communalism in the HRE. The later Middle Ages ‘great agrarian depression’, in wake of the 1348 Black Death that weakened the lords, strengthened peasants, through scarcity of labor, encouraged a wide movement for village self-government (communalism) in Holy Roman Empire, especially in central and southern regions.
2/ Czech religious revolt, early 15th C, seeded by Jan Hus, [c1369-1415, influenced by English priest, academic and theologian John Wycliff [1320s – 1384], engendered the Hussite Wars, Bohemian Wars, Christian Hussites versus HRE Sigismund / Papacy / loyal monarchs. Reformer Jan Hus was executed 1415 and HRE Sigismund, brother of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia [d c1420] gained permission from Papacy for crusade against Hussites!
Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia and formed a major spontaneous military power. They defeated five consecutive crusades proclaimed against them by the Pope (1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, 1431),
July 30, 1419 – May 30, 1434; mostly the Lands of the Bohemian Crown; Outcome: defeat for Radical Hussites, victory for Moderate Hussites. End of Hussite Wars in 1431, Bohemia ravaged, pop. of Czech lands, c2.80–3.37m c1400, fell to 1.50–1.85m by 1526. Adjacent Bishopric of Würzburg also; Jan Hus Charles University in Prague. Priesthood, BA degree, preach in Prague, opposed Catholic Church in Bohemia, eg ecclesiology, simony, the Eucharist. Alexander V elected as a pope, Papal bull excommunicated Hus. Continued to preach. Council of Constance, Hus lured with indemnity, but arrested, executed 1415.
3/ Princes implemented, took advantage of Roman civil law, replacing old Common law.
Princes attempted to force their freer peasants into serfdom by increasing taxes and introducing Roman civil law.
Roman civil law advantaged princes, brought all land into their ownership, eliminated older feudal concept of land as trust between lord and peasant, contract that conferred rights / obligations on both. Hence confiscation of property and revenues, peasants now serfs.
4/ Imperial knights, “lesser nobility”, a key agent in rebellion, through a/ them leaning on peasants, especially down south, because Princes leaning on them; and /b their revolt sending message to upset peasants.
Hurt by a/ Princes taking advantage of Roman civil law, and more in the north, “many of the lesser nobles had already been subordinated to secular and ecclesiastical lords, thus their dominance over serfs was more restricted”.
b/ rise cities, urbanisation, growing wealth of merchants; and
c/ change in military technology / methods, losing business to mercenaries.
Contrast with England where a single monarch ruled centralised system, versus cluster of Princes in “Germany”, thus English king [from Henry VII] taxed merchants and did not take land from nobles.
1495 Reichstag banned private warfare, traditional business for knights, further hurt them.
Knights offside with towns, owed them money and offended by Church’s privileges, wealth, arrogance.
Hence Knights’ Revolt, knights of Rhineland rebelled against Princes 1522–1523, led by Franz von Sickingen, rhetoric was religious, after Luther, but main complaint economic, besieged Trier in 1522, aimed at Archbishop, opponent of Luther. But failed.
Knights opposed by both Lutheran and Catholic Princes.
5/ Clergy. Under pressure
a/ Renaissance humanism on the march. Erasmus etc. Church “beginning to lose its overwhelming intellectual authority.”
b/ corruption. ML targeting sale of indulgences, selling remission for sins. Also simony: selling church offices and roles or sacred things. Extends to other forms of trafficking for money in “spiritual things”. Appointment of ecclesiastical officials, bishops and abbots, by a secular authority came to be considered simoniacal, key issue during the Investiture Controversy. And pluralism, holding several offices.
Radical reformers [cf Zwickau prophets, Anabaptists [believing in adult baptism, ie by their choice] emerged in the Church, more stridently opposed to Rome, and some of these actively joined the peasants’ violent uprising, notably Thomas Muntzer [c1489-1525] who with an apocalyptic millenarian / end of world mindset saw the rebels “as the instruments of God.. God’s elect [who would disclose his will”, ie having God on their side, and saw their opponents, the nobility, as in employ of Satan.
They believed in individual conviction, saw no role for institutional Church, and wrote a lot about their complaints.
Ulrich van Hutten [1488-1523, knight, scholar, satirist, Protestant reformer, bitter critic of Rome eg The Letters of Obscure Men] and other humanists.
Martin Luther [1483 – 1546), theologian, priest, Augustinian monk. Disputed indulgences, eg in Ninety-five Theses of 1517, refused renounce at demand of Pope Leo X 1520 and HRE Charles V at Diet of Worms 1521, excommunicated, outlawed by HRE. Taught that salvation, eternal life are not earned by deeds but received by God’s grace through believer’s faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin, challenged authority and office of pope, saw Bible as only source of divinely revealed knowledge, and opposed sacerdotalism / priesthood, all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Translation of the Bible into the German vernacular big impact on church and German culture.
6/ Towns: patricians [ruling / governing wealthy families, in town councils, held all the administrative offices], part of usurping common lands. Merchants / burghers, from guilds Many towns exempt from taxes, again increasing burden on peasants. Plebeians, new class of urban workers, journeymen, and peddlers. Barred from higher positions by patricians.
7/ Peasants: pent up economic and political grievances.
Earlier unrest, 1476 Wurzburg, then Bundschuh risings [Upper Rhine 1439, 1443, 1444; 1476 Tauber Valley; 1493 Alsace; 1502; 1513 Lehen; 1517 Upper Rhine], 1514 Poor Konrad revolt, risings 1513-1517.
The background to peasant unrest was complex.
The laboring rural peasant class, bottom of the traditional hierarchy, had benefited from the Black Death’s savage cull of the workforce, making labor much scarcer, thus helping lift real wages later in 14th C into the 15th. But then introduction of Roman civil law [displacing traditional common law] by ruling Princes – and also resorted to by Imperial Knights below – ate into these better circumstances, especially by confiscating / enclosing common lands near villages, forcing some peasants into at least quasi-serfdom.
However revolt broke out in, was confined to the south because:
a/ it had a stronger tradition of village self-government (communalism), thus more sensitive to perceived rights and to imposts from above;
and b/ the knight class was relatively stronger south, but was itself under pressure from Princes, including shrinkage of the knights traditional role of providing military service, losing this to mercenaries.
So it was mainly knights in turn leaning on the peasants.
The inclination to rebel was led in particular by better off aspirational peasants and this together with stronger communalism south was reflected in the Twelve Articles [Zwölf Artikel] summarising their complaints, devised and agreed by the Upper Swabian Peasants Confederation [including Baltringer, Allgäuer, Lake Constance] at the Free Imperial City [ie reporting to the HRE not a Prince] of Memmingen March 1525.
The Twelve Articles was a landmark document in the ancestry of modern liberal democracy in specifying rights / demands of the populace: notably 1/ freedom for serfs; 2/ access to forests / lakes for food and wood; 3/ no laboring obligations not agreed to; 4/ fair rent for land; 5/ rule of law: laws agreed not arbitrary.
The so-called Book of One Hundred Chapters [1501-1513] [also] promoted religious and economic freedom, attacking the governing establishment and displaying pride in the virtuous peasant. [Gerald Strauss, 1971]
8/ Printing, literacy. Printing a vital tool. Spread the word, for reformers, including peasants. And slowly rising literacy, esp towns. Church losing its monopoly on schools
WAR
Goal
Agitated for the redress of grievances, hence political reform, stronger local government.
Encapsulated esp in pioneering 12 Articles.
War – overall
Inexperienced, poorly armed rebels faced off against experienced princely armies, including professionals, some cavalry, well armed, with artillery.
Rebel armies lost all but one of the pitched battles.
Rulers’ response delayed because forces away in Italy, for Charles V. Swabian League fielded army under von Walburg. HQ in Ulm.
War – course
Started in SW, 1524, Stuhlingen, S of Black Forest, Countess of Lupfen, ordered peasants to collect snails for thread spools. Soon c1200 gathered, created a list of grievances, elected officers, and raised a banner.
Within a few weeks most SW Germany in revolt, from the Black Forest, along the Rhine river, to Lake Constance, into the Swabian highlands, along the upper Danube river, into Bavaria and the Tyrol.
16 Feb 1525, villages belonging to city of Memmingen rebelled, demanding from city council improvements… complained of peonage, land use, easements on the woods and the commons, as well as ecclesiastical requirements of service and payment…Unexpectedly, the peasants delivered a radical uniform declaration.. Twelve articles outlined their grievances, rejected many of the demands.. articles of Memmingen basis for the Twelve Articles agreed on by the Upper Swabian Peasants Confederation of 20 March 1525.
The Twelve Articles (Zwölf Artikel), part of the peasants’ demands of the Swabian League. First draft of human rights and civil liberties in continental Europe after the Roman Empire? Gatherings in the process of drafting them considered to be the first constituent assembly on German soil.
On 6 March 1525 about 50 representatives of the Upper Swabian Peasants Groups (Baltringer, Allgäuer, Lake Constance), met in Memmingen, deliberate their common stance against the Swabian League.
One day later proclaimed the Christian Association, an Upper Swabian Peasants’ Confederation. Met again on 15 and 20 March 1525 in Memmingen, adopted the Twelve Articles and the Federal Order (Bundesordnung).
Examples among many similar programmes developed during the German Peasants’ War that were published in print. Twelve Articles printed over 25,000 times within the next two months.
Kempten Abbey Insurrection 1525; Battle of Leipheim April 1525; Crushed in a battle at Frankenhausen, fought May 15, 1525. More than 5,000 peasants were killed. Battle of Böblingen May 1525. Battle of Königshofen June 1525. Siege of Freiburg im Breisgau May 1525. Second Battle of Würzburg June 1525.
Swabia more moderate than Franconia?
M Luther cautious April 1525, “Admonition to Peace”, then vehement opposition, after near being killed in Harz, in May1525, Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants.
Toll: peasants > 100k died, from 300k; rulers, army 6-8.5k, losses minor.
Varying local conditions
movement for local self-government worked in Switzerland, which not revolt in 1524-26.
some other southern areas remained quiet too, eg strongly ruled duchy of Bavaria.
Also Lower Rhineland (north of Cologne) and the north German lands.
So revolt engulfed HRE’s southern and central tiers, where local govt ambitions frustrated, nobles weaker, spilling over into French-speaking Lorraine and Italian-speaking South Tyrol.
Joined in Saxony and Tyrol by miners, and by some burghers in many small towns.
Outcome
Main thrust of revolt from aspirational better off “peasants’.
Varied greatly: some areas repression, grievances unredressed; others much better, burdens were ameliorated.
Psychologically, the revolution was a major event in the early Protestant Reformation: it strengthened the convictions of some that religious abuses formed the main reasons for rebellion; it bolstered the arguments of others that the new.
Aethelwulf 